Chaos Undermining the Dynasty

Chinese literature is one of the most extensive and richest literary traditions in the world. With a heritage spanning over three millennia, it stands as one of the world’s major literary legacies. Chinese literature is so widespread that it has influenced the literatures of neighboring Asian countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Within this vast tradition, four literary works have gained enduring prominence and influence. Collectively, these works are known as the Four Great Classical Novels; an extended list includes two additional books. With their unmatched impact on both classical and contemporary Chinese literature, these novels have been hailed by sinologists as the pinnacles of Chinese literary achievement. Their enduring significance is underlined by their continued relevance in modern literary discourse. These four novels also served as key entry points through which the West was introduced to Chinese society, culture, and history.

Originally published in the 14th century, Shi Nai’an’s 水滸傳 (Shuǐhǔ Zhuàn) is the second of the four literary classics to be published; the oldest of the four, Luo Guanzhong’s 三國演義 (Sānguó Yǎnyi; trans., Romance of the Three Kingdoms) was also published in the 14th century. While 水滸傳 was translated into other languages before the 20th century, with the Japanese translation appearing in the 18th century, its first English translation only became available during the first half of the 20th century. Among the earliest English translations was Nobel Laureate in Literature Pearl S. Buck’s translation, which carried the title All Men Are Brothers; it was published in 1933. Buck felt that the direct translation of the original title would get lost on the Anglophone reader. Another prominent translation was J. H. Jackson’s translation, which carried the title Water Margin – the literal translation of the Chinese title – and was published in 1937. A different translation carried the title Outlaws of the Marsh.

In addition to being a cornerstone of Chinese literature, The Water Margin is one of the earliest novels originally written in vernacular Mandarin. The first external reference to the novel appeared in 1524, during the Jiajing reign of the Ming dynasty, although its exact origins have never been fully established. Its authorship is also subject to debate; although traditionally attributed to Shi Nai’an (1296–1372), some scholars have suggested that Luo Guanzhong may have been the actual author. Regardless of its disputed provenance, this beloved classic transports readers to early 12th-century China. After nearly three centuries of prosperity, the Song Dynasty was teetering on the edge of chaos. The emperor was slowly losing control of the empire, undermined by various forces—including the invading Jurchens from Manchuria. The dynasty would eventually lose half its territory to the invaders, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital to the south. As if foreign threats weren’t enough, internal instability and political intrigue further endangered his reign.

Are you afraid that I will get drunk, and then not be able to do the work? But if I get no wine I shall be unable to act. If I have only a little wine I cannot do much business; if I get only half I can do only half; but if I get a full quantity I can exert all my strength and skill and do anything. I fi get drunk I have great courage. If I had not been drunk how could I have killed the tiger on Jingyang Ridge? When I fight with Jiang the ‘Door God,’ I must be drunk, and then I shall be able to exert my power to the full.

Shi Naian, The Water Margin

Due to the dynasty’s misrule and atrocities, outlaws roamed the present-day provinces of Shandong, Hebei, Anhui, and Henan. Meanwhile, in the Eastern Capital, Dongjing (東京, present-day Kaifeng, Henan), the residents were afflicted by a plague. To seek a cure, Marshal Hong Xin traveled to a Taoist monastery. Complications arose when Hong ordered the monks of the monastery to release the 108 demons imprisoned beneath an ancient tortoise-bearing stele in the Hall of Demon Suppression. These 108 demons, whose names appear at the beginning of the novel, are the titular outlaws. They represent 108 demonic overlords once banished by the deity Shangdi. Their release was ominous; it had long been foretold in the stars that their liberation would bring turmoil across the empire. Despite the warnings, they were set free—but have since repented.

The 108 stars—comprising 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly Spirits—descended to Earth and established a stronghold in the fictional region of Liangshan Marsh (梁山泊). As foretold, chaos followed their release, though the signs of impending disorder had already been visible. The empire was descending into turmoil, teetering on the brink of collapse. The novel unfolds by recounting the backstories of these spirits, beginning with Gao Qiu (高俅), one of the story’s primary antagonists. A former hooligan in the streets of the Eastern Capital, Gao’s life changed after a chance encounter with Prince Duan, whom he impressed with his skill in the ball game qiqiu (氣毬). This sparked a close friendship with the prince, who, upon ascending the throne, appointed Gao as Grand Marshal. However, Gao soon revealed his corrupt nature, abusing his power to take revenge on those who had slighted him. He had no qualms about persecuting the innocent.

One of his victims was Wang Sheng (王昇), the father of Wang Jin (王進), a martial arts instructor in the Imperial Guards. Aware of Gao’s vendetta, Wang Jin fled the capital with his mother. During his journey, he encountered Shi Jin (史進), one of the 36 Heavenly Spirits. Shi Jin had been passionate about martial arts since childhood and became Wang’s apprentice. The main character of the novel’s early chapters, however, is Shi Jin’s friend, Lu Zhishen—also one of the 36 Heavenly Spirits. Born Lu Da (魯達), he was nicknamed the “Flowery Monk.” Originally a garrison major in Weizhou (渭州), Lu Da met Shi Jin and Li Zhong (李忠) while off duty. After accidentally killing Butcher Zheng (鄭屠夫), a wealthy and abusive butcher, during a confrontation, Lu Da fled Weizhou, took refuge in a monastery, and adopted the name Lu Zhishen to evade punishment.

Nicknamed “Panther Head,” Lin Chong (林冲) ranks sixth among the 36 Heavenly Spirits. A martial arts instructor in Dongjing, he encountered Lu Zhishen while the monk was training with his hefty staff, and the two became sworn brothers. Lin Chong’s life began to unravel when Gao Yanei, the depraved and lecherous adopted son of Gao Qiu, attempted to assault Lin’s wife. Lin Chong arrived just in time to save her, but Gao Yanei faced no consequences. Lin chose not to report the incident, fearing retaliation. Nevertheless, Yanei remained determined to possess Lin’s wife and enlisted his adoptive father’s help. This led to Lin Chong being framed for attempting to assassinate Gao Qiu, resulting in his imprisonment. While held in Cangzhou prison, Lin Chong befriended Chai Jin, a nobleman renowned for offering sanctuary to chivalrous men—including many of the 108 Stars of Destiny.

That will not do. I invited you to come here, and if I seize you for the reward everybody will jeer at me. If this is your time for death, I will die with you; it to live, then I will live with you. Please get up, be at your ease, and let us think of another plan. Wait until I have asked the soldiers why they come here.

Shi Naian, The Water Margin

All of these men not only suffered misfortunes but also various forms of abuse. Some were falsely accused of crimes they did not commit, while others were forced into committing them. They were victims of a system that leveraged power in favor of the abusive. This systemic injustice drove them to become outlaws. But before the rise of the 108 Stars of Destiny, there were the Original Seven Outlaws. Their story begins with news that a convoy escorting birthday gifts for the Imperial Tutor, Cai Jing, would be passing through Dongxi Village. Upon hearing this, the village headman, Chao Gai, assembled a team of seven to rob the valuable gifts. Disguised as date traders, they tricked the escorts into drinking wine laced with a drug that made them unconscious.

Eventually, Chao Gai and the Original Seven arrived at Liangshan Marsh, where they encountered another band of outlaws led by Wang Lun. However, Wang did not welcome them as allies. Driven by insecurity, he plotted ways to send them away. His excessive control bred resentment among his comrades, ultimately leading to his assassination. This marked Chao Gai’s rise to leadership. When Chao Gai was later killed in a clash with the Zeng brothers of the Zeng Family Fortress, the surviving bandits chose Song Jiang as their new leader. Interestingly, this decision went against Chao Gai’s final wish—he had instructed that leadership should go to whoever captured Shi Wengong, his killer. That person was Lu Junyi (盧俊義), ranked second among the 108 Stars of Destiny. Nevertheless, Lu and other chieftains supported Song Jiang’s rise.

Song Jiang, ironically, was the embodiment of compassion. Known for aiding the poor and heroic, he earned the nickname “Timely Rain.” Once the 108 Stars assembled at Liangshan, he earned a new moniker, the “Protector of Justice.” Even before ascending to his role as the bandit’s leader, Song Jiang had displayed remarkable leadership qualities. He successfully led almost all of Liangshan’s military battles, skillfully and silently orchestrating their offensives as the commander. His influence was subtly embedded in their victories. With the stories of the heroes laid out in detail, the tempo for the second half of the novel has been established. With the heroes’ stories laid out in the first half, the novel’s tempo accelerates. The second half builds on that foundation as chaos deepens and the empire moves steadily toward collapse.

Ultimately, The Water Margin reveals the complex and layered causes behind the fall of the Song Dynasty. Chief among them was the growing discontent of its people, exacerbated by the abusive practices of powerful figures like Gao Qiu. His thirst for vengeance made him a symbol of unchecked moral corruption. His influence is felt throughout the novel. It is worth noting that many of the 108 outlaws were once upstanding individuals – honest officials, loyal soldiers, and responsible citizens. Lin Chong and Wang Jin are prime examples. Figures like Gao Qiu served as catalysts, pushing these individuals toward rebellion. In doing so, they exposed the moral rot of a system overrun by corrupt magistrates and abusive elites.

I have revenged my brother’s injury and I should feel no resentment if I had to die for it. I am sorry for having frightened you. I must leave now but I do not know whether I shall livev or die. I had better now get my brother’s mourning curtain burnt. I however want you to sell all the furniture here, as I can make use of the money in the yamen when the case comes up. But whether the case is taken seriously or lightly I hope that you will be my witnesses and speak only the whole truth.

Shi Naian, The Water Margin

Moral corruption also permeated the ranks of the affluent and powerful. Butcher Zheng, for example, exploited a young woman named Jin Cuilian (金翠蓮), who was stranded in Weizhou with her elderly father. Desperate for money to bury her mother, Jin was lured by Zheng with the promise of financial help in exchange for becoming his concubine. No money was given, but she was taken into Zheng’s household, where she was hated by his wife. Eventually, Jin and her father were driven out, yet they were barred from leaving Weizhou until the “debt” was paid. But Jin wasn’t the only victim; Zheng was infamous for preying on the poor and underprivileged. He epitomized the corruption that pervaded Song Dynasty officialdom.

In contrast to the examination of corruption, the novel also explores justice. The tension between individual morality and systemic injustice runs throughout the story. While the 108 Stars of Destiny were initially portrayed as demonic, they ultimately emerge as symbols of justice and equality. Having endured abuse and exploitation themselves, they began to question the very nature of justice. Ironically, these so-called outlaws became its greatest champions in a society dominated by tyranny and moral decay. The pursuit of justice became the glue that bound the 108 together. The narrative reaches a turning point in Chapter 40; the first 39 chapters carefully build the psychological profiles and motivations of the main characters. Chapter 40 escalates the tension between government officials and the armed forces of corrupt local gentry, setting the stage for the Liangshan Uprising.

Violence is a prevalent theme in the novel. It is, after all, the story of a band of rebels rising against a regime of misrule and oppression. But the novel’s depiction of violence is often shocking – gruesome, gory, and unsettling. Some protagonists are not just capable of violence; they engage in it maniacally. In rare cases, even cannibalism appears. Yet, alongside the violence, the novel subtly explores themes of redemption. Though initially described as evil, the 108 Stars are revealed to be victims of a corrupt system. Ironically, Song Jiang is the most ideologically loyal to the throne. The most aligned with the Dynasty’s causes among the outlaws, he dreams of serving the empire and even suggests that the Outlaws of the Marsh fight for the dynasty’s just causes. His loyalty ultimately earns the outlaws an imperial amnesty.

I feel that I ought to gouge out my own eyes because they failed to recognize you. I did not even ask you any questions so that I was almost on the point of killing a hero. If Heaven had not luckily moved you to say your name we should not have found out who you are. I have acted as a brigand for ten years, and during my travels I have heard that you distributed money in good cause and assisted people in distress. Only I have been so unfortunate that I could not pay you the respects earlier. Now I am contented that Heaven has arranged for us to meet today.

Shi Naian, The Water Margin

But the 108 Stars of Destiny are not merely symbols of justice – they also serve as conduits for exploring the human condition. They face constant oppression and exploitation, often brought to the brink of despair. Yet they remain resilient. In seeking justice, they were also seeking the meaning of life. They experience universal emotions, such as pain, anger, joy, sorrow, and hope. They also have their own aspirations that they are fighting for. The convergence of these heroes, once isolated, now united, reflects the beauty of brotherhood. Bound by a shared pursuit of justice, they form deep, loyal bonds. Though disagreements arise, loyalty and honor remain central to their relationships. Still, betrayal also rears its head among the group, adding layers of tension and complexity.

Interwoven with the central plot are adventure stories, many of which are memorable. Among them is Wu Song’s slaying of a tiger with a single punch—one of the most iconic episodes in the novel. Tigers appear repeatedly in the story, including in scenes where Li Kui (李逵) and the brothers Xie Zhen (解珍) and Xie Bao (解寶) also kill tigers. In Chinese mythology, the tiger symbolizes both strength and danger. However, the novel also reflects the patriarchal nature of the society it depicts. Women are portrayed through a highly unbalanced lens. Beautiful women are often painted as deceitful or immoral, working against the male protagonists. Meanwhile, virtuous women are portrayed as plain or insignificant. The female characters lack nuance, serving more as narrative tools than fully developed individuals.

Despite its flaws, The Water Margin remains a vivid and powerful depiction of a society on the brink of collapse. It examines the systemic forces, such as corruption, abuse of power, and injustice, that undermined the Song Dynasty. The 108 Stars of Destiny become vessels through which these societal ills are explored, representing ordinary citizens turned rebels in a bid to reclaim dignity and justice. The outlaws themselves are fascinating character studies. Their depth adds nuance to a novel that otherwise brims with violence and chaos. But the message of The Water Margin transcends its era. Corruption persists today. The powerful still abuse their positions. Misgovernance and discontent remain widespread. That enduring relevance makes The Water Margin, despite its flaws, a deserving member of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature.

What are you talking about! Should an eagle be afraid of a sparrow? I have been well trained in physical drill since my youth, and I have never yet met a man who could defeat me. Today I shall perhaps have an opportunity of showing off my skill. I have plaed on the top of that cart a sack of ropes. While I kill men with swords you can pick them up and bind them in the barrows. Then we can cart them off to the capital, and the Emperor will reward us for our enterprise. If any of you are unwilling to go with me I will kill you on the spot.

Shi Naian, The Water Margin
Book Specs

Author: Shi Naian
Translator (from Chinese): J.H. Jackson
Publisher: Tuttle Publishing
Publishing Date: 2023 (1592, 1641)
Number of Pages: 798
Genre: Historical, Fantasy

Synopsis

The Water Margin is an epic tale set in 12th century Imperial China, one of the earliest and greatest masterpieces of Chinese fiction. Weaving historical details and memorable characters, it tells the exciting story of a rebellion against tyranny set amidst the turmoil of a crumbling empire.

In this action-packed story, a band of outlaws are drawn together by fate and a shared desire for justice. They are pursued to remote marshes by corrupt officials, where their popularity among the people grows. Through intricate scheme, epic battles and unexpected treachery, the heroes vow to fight to the death for freedom and for their loyalty to one another.

The book’s cast of characters, all folk heroes in China today, includes:
*Song Jiang: The charismatic leader, who assembles the band of outcasts and leads them into battle against overwhelmingly odds
*Sun Erniang: A brave female warrior whose courage inspires her male comrades
*Pan Jinliang: A beautiful and mysterious temptress and one of the most notorious villains in Chinese literature
*Wu Song: A fierce higher whose reputation for bravery matched only by his love of wine and women

This new edition restores bawdy passages omitted in all other English versions because they were thought to be too racy. A detailed introduction by Edwin Lowe explains how the book’s message of courage and loyalty has captured the imagination of Chinese readers and continues to resonate with them today.

About the Author

Shi Nai’an (施耐庵; Shī Nài’ān) is a Chinese writer often attributed with writing Water Margin (水滸傳; Shuǐhǔ Zhuàn), also called Outlaws of the Marsh or All Men Are Brothers, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. However, definite evidence about his life is scarce, although it is widely believed that he was born in 1296 and passed away in 1372. It is claimed that he was a native of Huai’an in Jiangsu province. It is widely believed that his career flourished during the mid-14th century. He allegedly served as a magistrate before resigning to focus on writing and mentoring Luo Guanzhong, another prominent author often associated with the novel and the writer of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, another of the Four Great Classical Novels.