A Country on the Verge of Tumult

Arabic literature is certainly one of the most influential literary traditions today. With a history spanning centuries—and even millennia—it has developed into one of the world’s richest bodies of writing. Some of the world’s most renowned and memorable stories, including epic tales, tragic romances, and adventurous narratives, were written by Arabic wordsmiths. It is a lush tapestry encompassing an entire spectrum of literary works. Who has not heard of One Thousand and One Nights, also known as the Arabian Nights? It is easily one of the most recognizable works of world literature. A prominent character from One Thousand and One Nights has even become an adjective for modern storytellers: Scheherazade. Indeed, Arabic literature brims with various Scheherazades—wells of engaging and compelling stories. These storytellers preserved and transmitted the tales of antiquity from one generation to the next through various media.

Without a doubt, the influence of Arabic literature transcends time, language, and physical borders. Its flame continues to burn brightly thanks to numerous contemporary writers, among them Saud Alsanousi, Alaa Al Aswany, Khaled Khalifa, and Nawal El Saadawi. However, a name that stands tallest in the sacrosanct halls of Arabic literature is Egyptian writer Naguib Mahfouz. At a young age, Mahfouz developed an interest in writing, and his first novel was published in 1939. His literary career, however, was briefly interrupted by the Egyptian Revolution of July 1952. He later resumed writing and reestablished himself as a leading authority on the depiction of life in Cairo and Egypt. Through his evocative storytelling, Mahfouz captured his homeland’s diverse peoples, colorful culture, and complex history. In 1988, he made history as the first Arab writer to win the prestigious Nobel Prize in Literature.

In his chronicle of Arabian narrative art, Mahfouz produced several stellar works. However, one collective work has been recognized by many literary critics as his magnum opus. The series الثلاثية (1956–1957, Al-Thulāthiyyah; trans. The Trilogy), known in English as The Cairo Trilogy, stands as the hallmark of his career. In Egypt, it made him a household name. It was also the work that catapulted him to global recognition. In its citation, the Swedish Academy specifically mentioned the trilogy. The trilogy begins with بين القصرين (Bayn al-Qasrayn), published in 1956 and translated into English as Palace Walk. A year later, its sequel, قصر الشوق (Qasr al-Shawq), appeared. Literally translated as Palace of Longing, it was also published under the title Palace of Desire and, like the other books in the trilogy, was translated into English only after Mahfouz’s Nobel win.

We understand with our minds but live with our hearts. Despite your skeptical stance, you love, work together with other people, and share in the political life of your nation. Whether we are conscious of it or not, behind each of these initiatives there is a principle that is no less powerful than faith. Art is the interpreter of the human world. besides that, some writers have produced works forming part of the international contest of ideas. In their hands art has become one of the weapons of international progress. There is no way that art can be considered a frivolous activity.

~ Naguib Mahfouz, Sugar Street
Family Dynamics

The trilogy concludes with السكرية (as-Sukkariyya). Originally published in 1957, it was translated into English as Sugar Street in 1992. Set between 1935 and the outbreak of World War II—eight years after the end of Palace of Desire—Sugar Street returns readers to Cairo and reintroduces the complex Abd al-Jawad family. The patriarch, al-Sayyid Ahmad Abd al-Jawad, has significantly aged. Years of a decadent lifestyle have caught up with him, and he now suffers from hypertension and heart disease. His mobility is restricted. He struggles to climb the stairs to the top floor of his own house, prompting him and his regular “coffee hour” to move to the ground floor due to his weakened heart. His authoritarian stranglehold on the family has gradually loosened. His once-secret double life has been exposed to his sons. What was once a rigidly patriarchal household has become one inching toward democracy.

Changes in the household are evident, though some things remain the same. Amina, the matriarch, has also aged, but with time, she has begun to enjoy her newfound freedoms. It is the greatest freedom of her life, even if she spends much of it praying and visiting mosques. Meanwhile, Kamal, the family’s youngest son and the focus of Palace of Desire, has turned the house’s top floor into his personal apartment. The torment of youthful, unrequited love continues to haunt him, leaving him unmarried and living a monotonous life. His cultured friends have moved on. However, he has become a respected teacher, pursuing intellectual fulfillment, with philosophers and books as his companions. Kamal’s older sister, Aisha, has become a shadow of her former self. After the untimely deaths of her husband and sons, the once-great beauty has turned into a phantom haunting the family home.

As Aisha descends into perpetual grief, Yasin, al-Jawad’s oldest son, has finally found stability in his third marriage. He becomes an embodiment of character development. The story, however, shifts from the patriarchal home on Palace Walk to the residence of the family’s eldest daughter, Khadija, and her husband, Ibrahim Shawkat, on Sugar Street. The titles of the books correspond to the alleyways where the family’s homes are located. With the shift in setting comes a shift in focus—from the second generation to the third, particularly to al-Sayyid Ahmad’s three very different grandsons. Khadija and Ibrahim have two sons: Abd al-Muni‘m and Ahmad Shawkat. Though nearly identical in personality, their political beliefs lie at opposite ends of the spectrum. Unlike his cousins, Ridwan has chosen a more conventional political path. Serving as a guidepost for his nephews, Kamal becomes more active in the Wafdist Party, vocally advocating for Egypt’s independence.

A Period of Political Upheaval

Compared to its predecessors, Sugar Street is the most politically pervasive book in the trilogy. The period in which it is set was one of significant political transformation in Egypt. Nationalism was taking root. The movement to gain independence from British control had become increasingly active and vocal. This development unfolds gradually across the trilogy. With the rise of nationalist sentiment comes the increasing involvement of the younger generation. Breaking free from the constraints of their elders, they gain a voice and become more vocal about national concerns. Khadija’s two sons serve as lenses through which Mahfouz examines this tumultuous yet pivotal period in modern Egyptian history. However, as history has shown, politics is a slippery slope.

His eyes roamed around, following some kites that circled overhead or gazing at the groups of palm trees. Everyone else felt free to express his opinion, even if it attacked his Creator. Yet he was compelled to conceal the controversies raging in his own soul, where they would remain a terrifying secret that threatened him. He might as well have been a scapegoat or an alien. Who had divided human behaviour into normal and deviant? How can an adversary also serve as judge?

~ Naguib Mahfouz, Sugar Street

Like any family, dichotomies abound. These differences—whether in personality or political ideology—create tension, even among the closest relatives. Abd al-Muni‘m and Ahmad, despite their similar dispositions, are shaped by opposing ideological forces. The former is steeped in fundamental Islamic principles. Strong religious convictions guide him, and he joins the Muslim Brotherhood, becoming increasingly radicalized. The Brotherhood aims to regulate every aspect of Egyptian life through Shari‘a. Ahmad’s political ideology, by contrast, is shaped by Marx. He becomes a committed Communist, critical of his family’s political views, which he considers backward. These contrasting beliefs foreshadow generations of political unrest in Egypt, marking the rise of political extremism.

As calls for independence gain traction, both Communist and Islamist ideals rise as well. This underscores how the push for independence permeates even ordinary Egyptian life. Mahfouz vividly captures the strengths and weaknesses of both ideologies, though he is more critical of the inapplicability of Islamic teachings in the modern context. The brothers’ contrasting beliefs serve as a microcosm of Egypt’s political landscape, illustrating the complexities of ideological allegiance. Each brother represents a divergent path toward Egypt’s future—yet both paths lead toward violence. Around them, political tension escalates. King Fuad’s leadership is undermined by the Wafd Party, which opposes the government and calls for the restoration of the 1923 constitution.

Like its predecessors, Sugar Street is rich in historical context. Though the novel is set during the twilight years of the British protectorate over Egypt, the British still wield influence and subtle control over Egyptian politics, resisting anyone who is too anti-British. The decline of al-Sayyid Ahmad Abd al-Jawad and his patriarchal dominance becomes a powerful metaphor for the disintegration of colonial control. Aisha’s stagnation underscores this theme. Still, Mahfouz paints a pessimistic portrait of his countrymen’s ability to free their nation. Near the novel’s end, Abd al-Muni‘m and Ahmad Shawkat—the next generation of freedom fighters—are arrested for distributing subversive tracts across Cairo. With the Second World War looming, the people debate which force is worse: the occupying British or the Germans.

Of Culture and Self-Discovery

One of the book’s greatest achievements—and, by extension, one of the trilogy’s—is its evocative portrait of a particular place and time. Its cultural touchstones and their evolution are among the novel’s highlights. At the outset, we are introduced to an exemplar of a traditional Egyptian family. They were deeply conservative and religious, living in a profoundly conservative society. The al-Jawad household serves as a microcosm of Egypt, a family governed by patriarchy. The trilogy slowly exposes an underground Cairo brimming with alcohol consumption, drug use, adultery, and prostitution. In doing so, the novels reveal the hypocrisy inherent in patriarchal structures. Over the course of the trilogy, however, this patriarchy is gradually dismantled. Interestingly, the trilogy is not an indictment of the characters’ traditions, beliefs, or political affiliations, nor does Mahfouz pass judgment on their choices regarding marriage, sex, or drinking. Instead, he allows readers the freedom to interpret these elements for themselves.

A judge’s life is an excellent one. Its mainstays are a lively intelligence and a wakeful conscience. By the grace of God I was an honest judge. I left the bench to enter politics. Patriotism occasionally forces us to give up work we love. Yet even today you will find people who swear by fairness and integrity. Set your sights on being industrious and fair. Then you’ll be free to do what you want in your private life. Do your duty and act as you please. If you fail to do your duty, people will see only your faults.

~ Naguib Mahfouz, Sugar Street

Intertwined with Egypt’s shifting political landscape, the novel also captures the period’s pivotal societal changes. The tension between tradition and emerging modernity is a central theme of the trilogy. It vividly portrays the conflict between entrenched customs and the forces of modernization. Although the patriarchy slowly weakens, remnants of old norms persist. Kamal, like his father, visits the same brothel that once catered to al-Sayyid Ahmad. Nevertheless, the family’s upheaval reflects the wider transformation of Egyptian society. The theme of tradition versus modernity is most palpable in Sugar Street, where the younger generation becomes increasingly critical of the old ways and their stifling effect on progress. They begin to question traditional norms while embracing new ideas.

Covering a wide range of subjects—including history, social commentary, culture, and politics—the topical scope of Sugar Street is undeniably extensive. Subtly, the brothers’ journey toward political awareness, bordering on radicalism, doubles as a journey of self-discovery. Identity is a seminal theme in the novel, with the interplay between politics and identity functioning as a key source of conflict throughout the trilogy. The novel captures the characters’ growth and, for some, decline. This search for identity is further embodied in Kamal’s own introspective journey. His narrative brims with existentialist musings. Despite being hampered by heartbreak—a universally human experience—his continual search for meaning resonates deeply with readers, offering a timeless reflection on the human condition.

A Fitting Conclusion

Within the realm of Arabic literature, The Cairo Trilogy is undeniably a monumental masterpiece. Through the story of the al-Jawad family, Mahfouz creates a vivid portrait of a nation slowly awakening from its slumber as nationalism takes root. The trilogy is set during both a tumultuous and pivotal period in modern Egyptian history. Mahfouz is resplendent in his depiction of the minutiae of Egyptian life. Palace Walk carefully lays the groundwork, introducing an eclectic cast of compelling characters whose lives will evolve dramatically throughout the trilogy. Palace of Desire builds on the strengths of the first book, delving deeper into the state of the family and of modern Egypt. The most politically pervasive of the three, Sugar Street continues to explore Egypt’s revolutionary climate. The waves of oppression seem unending, continually obstructing the nation’s rebirth.

The trilogy vividly illustrates the gradual transformation of the family, whose fate is inextricably tied to that of the nation. Their once-stable dynamics are disrupted by the events around them, shaped by the tectonic shifts sweeping across Egypt. With its rich historical context adding nuance to the narrative tapestry, the family is deconstructed and reassembled through dialogue, conflict, and reflection. Their stories offer insights into social justice, resilience, and the quest for dignity. Despite their contrasting beliefs, the characters foster essential conversations about power, morality, and Egypt’s future. The Cairo Trilogy is, in every sense, the embodiment of a city, a nation, and its people. From the ruins emerge individuals who encapsulate the breadth of human experience. The trilogy concludes with an alpha and an omega, tying up loose ends and serving as a searing reminder of life’s infinite cycles. Life and death are perpetual. Sugar Street is a fitting conclusion to a monumental literary achievement, one that stands as a testament to Mahfouz’s genius and solidifies his legacy as one of the world’s most gifted writers.

I believe in life and in people. I feel obliged to advocate their highest ideals as long as I believe them to be true. I also see myself compelled to revolt against ideals I believe to be false, since recoiling from rebellion would be a form of treason.

~ Naguib Mahfouz, Sugar Street
Book Specs

Author: Naguib Mahfouz
Translator (from Arabic): William Maynard Hutchins and Angele Botros Samaan
Publisher:  Anchor Books
Publishing Date: January 1993
Number of Pages: 308
Genre: Historical

Synopsis

Sugar Street is the third and concluding volume of the celebrated Cairo Trilogy, which brings the story of Al-Sayid Ahmad and his family up to the middle of the twentieth century.

Aging and ill, the family patriarch surveys the world from his housewares’s latticed balcony, as his long-suffering wife once did. While his children face middle age, it is through his grandsons that we see a modern Egypt emerging. (Source: Goodreads)

About the Author

To learn more about the first and, so far, only Egyptian Nobel Laureate in Literature, click here.