The First Argentine National Novel

World history is dotted with several dictators who have altered the course of history. Their propensity for violence has led to numerous instances of bloodshed that have marked some of the darkest periods of human history. Interestingly, when the term “dictator” was first used during the Roman Republic (509 to 27 BC), it did not carry the same dark implications that it does in the contemporary sense. During the Roman Republic, dictators were temporary magistrates who were granted extraordinary powers to address a specific state problem or crisis assigned to them. Their authority was temporary, conferred only when a crisis demanding their expertise arose. Common instances included periods of invasion or internal struggles within Roman society. Among the most renowned Roman dictators was Julius Caesar, whose name has transcended time. The phrase “crossing the Rubicon” is attributed to him. However, with the passage of time, the meaning of the word “dictator” has also evolved.

Modern dictators, with whom world history is riddled, are feared by many because of the atrocities they have committed during their stranglehold on power. While modern dictators wield immense authority, they use every ounce of their power to ensure that they remain in power. Fascism and authoritarianism have become synonymous with Adolf Hitler. He laid the groundwork for his vision of an Aryan-dominated state. As history would have it, he masterminded one of the largest genocides in modern history. Over in Italy, the teeth of fascism came biting with the rise to power of Benito Mussolini. In Spain, another fascist was slowly inching toward absolute power. When the dust of the Spanish Civil War settled, Generalissimo Francisco Franco emerged as the country’s absolute leader. These regimes would eventually be dismantled amid growing discontent, but not even the passage of time can heal the wounds that they caused.

Latin America has also had its fair share of dictators. For nearly two centuries, Latin America has endured the atrocities of dictators who rose to power in the aftermath of the decline of colonialism in the 19th century. Among the most infamous dictators who have sown seeds of fear in modern Latin American history are the Dominican Republic’s Rafael Trujillo, Cuba’s Fidel Castro, Chile’s Augusto Pinochet, and Paraguay’s Alfredo Stroessner. The prevalence of dictators in Latin American history gave rise to the development of a subgenre in Latin American literature specifically dedicated to probing the legacy of autocracy while examining the psychological profiles of dictators. These novels are known as novela del dictador, or dictator novels. These works also confront the role and legacy of the dictator in Latin American society and history. Included in this literary genre are Gabriel García Márquez’s The Autumn of the Patriarch (El otoño del patriarca, 1975) and Mario Vargas Llosa’s The Feast of the Goat (La fiesta del chivo, 2000).

Once men became disassociated, and feelings of justice and morality, of virtue and decorum isolated, they were annihilated by the violent impetus of crime associated with and organized by a government whose object was this alone, a government which, in order to achieve this aim, exploited all the evil instincts of an ignorant and impassioned rablle seeking the moment to react against a civilized order of things that was beginning to curb the expansion of its savage habits.

José Mármol, Amalia

Another literary work that is considered by many literary pundits to be an embodiment of the dictator novel is Argentine writer José Mármol’s Amalia. Written by Mármol while in exile, the novel was initially published in serialized (folletín) form in the newspaper La Semana in Montevideo, Uruguay. In 1855, the complete novel was published as a single volume in Mármol’s native Buenos Aires, Argentina. The novel is set in Buenos Aires in 1840, a turbulent period marked by the repressive measures instituted by the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas. Rosas was an army officer and caudillo who ruled the province of Buenos Aires and briefly governed the Argentine Confederation. On the night of May 4, 1840, six unitarios, led by Juan Merlo, plotted to escape from Buenos Aires to join General Juan Lavalle’s army in resistance to the Rosas government. The unitarios were among the regime’s chief political opponents. The plan, however, was thwarted when they were attacked by members of the Mazorca, Rosas’s feared paramilitary force.

While some of the men perished, Eduardo Belgrano managed to resist before being rescued by his friend, Daniel Bello. Daniel took his friend to the home of his cousin, the titular Amalia. Amalia is a young widow living in Barracas, outside the center of Buenos Aires. She agrees to protect Eduardo and nurse him back to health. Daniel was born into a prominent family of federalistas; Rosas was a federalist. However, Daniel secretly opposed the regime. Following the ambush of his friend, Daniel wrote a letter to his allies abroad to notify them of the attack. He also sent other missives to members of the federal government, pretending to be one of them in order to discover what they knew. This reveals the complicated political atmosphere of the time. Rosas’s regime was under threat from uprisings in several provinces. Furthermore, the French blockade was allied with the government of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.

With the first part laying out the political landscape, the second part focuses on Amalia Sáenz de Olavarrieta. She was originally from the province of Tucumán, often recognized as the “Garden of the Republic.” Amalia’s beauty is often compared to that of her homeland. Her beauty is complemented by her refinement and intelligence. However, this beauty belies a life marked by misfortune. She was orphaned at a young age, and when she was twenty-two, she was widowed. It was because of this series of misfortunes that Amalia developed a superstitious nature. Under Amalia’s care, Daniel was slowly able to recuperate from his wounds. In Amalia’s home, Eduardo found safety and refuge. Due to their proximity, Daniel gradually fell in love with his cousin, eventually confessing his feelings to her. His feelings were reciprocated by Amalia, who had also fallen in love with him. However, a horrible premonition of misfortune continued to disturb her.

Daniel, on the other hand, became increasingly involved in the political resistance movement against Rosas. Along with Eduardo, he met other young Argentines to whom he advocated association and internal resistance against the regime, as opposed to going into exile. Daniel worked tirelessly to organize opposition within Buenos Aires. He even traveled clandestinely to Montevideo, where he met Bouchet de Martigny, the French consul. He also met important Argentine exiles, including Julián Agüero and Florencio Varela. While some of the exiles were optimistic about the prospects for Juan Lavalle’s campaign, many remained apprehensive. Ultimately, Daniel left Montevideo disappointed. He observed the divisions among the anti-Rosista forces, and his vision of collective action was proving difficult to achieve. This was exacerbated by the lack of unity among Rosas’s enemies, who were divided by political disagreements and personal ambitions.

And as these thoughts went through his mind, the keen eyes of that man, whose young and intelligent countenance was illuminated at that moment by the silvery moonlight, seemed to be trying to penetrate the buildings of the city, close at hand now, in order to confirm, through his examination of its men, the virtues which at that moment his imagination attributed to them; his vision of them, however, lay at a rather far remove from the sad reality of things.

José Mármol, Amalia

Still, Daniel was resolute in his goal of uniting the unitarios and eventually overthrowing Rosas’s government. But as Daniel continued plotting the regime’s downfall, its forces were slowly closing in on Eduardo. When Rosas was informed of the ambush of the unitarios and the escape of Eduardo, he launched an investigation to identify the escaped fugitive. Rosas enlisted the help of his sister-in-law, María Josefa Ezcurra, to track down the dissident who had escaped following the May 4 incident. Ezcurra also happened to be one of the regime’s most effective agents. A piece of information tipped Ezcurra off about the presence of a wounded man at Amalia’s house. In particular, she was interested in the fact that the man had a limp. She then conspired with Nicolás Mariño, the federal newspaper editor who was also interested in Amalia. They began to cooperate, each pursuing his own interests. Will they succeed in tracking down Eduardo? Will the unitarios finally unite and succeed in their goal of overthrowing Rosas?

Interestingly, Mármol wrote the novel while he was in exile in Montevideo, Uruguay. He was part of a young generation of Argentine intellectuals who opposed Rosas’s increasingly authoritarian government. In April 1839, he was arrested by Rosas’s authorities and held incommunicado for six days. He was arrested for receiving and circulating newspapers from Montevideo, where many Argentine opponents of Rosas had taken refuge. While his incarceration was a warning, the young Mármol became increasingly concerned for his safety. His increasingly outspoken opposition was also slowly attracting the attention of the regime and its forces. In November 1840, he secretly sailed for Montevideo and went into self-imposed exile. Interestingly, Amalia opens with Eduardo Belgrano attempting to escape Buenos Aires for Montevideo; this essentially mirrors the geographical route Mármol himself eventually took. Politics and history consequently emerge as overarching themes in the novel.

Mármol captured the political landscape of the time, an era defined by tyranny. Through his evocative writing, he was able to capture the atrocities of the Rosas regime. Rosas’s insatiable appetite for power and control allowed him to perpetrate these atrocities. He crafted a system that relied on systematic surveillance and intimidation. Anyone suspected of being an enemy of the state or the regime was closely monitored, with some subjected to torture or public denunciation. Violence became ubiquitous, with the Mazorca emerging as the embodiment of this violence. The Mazorca also instilled fear among the population. Its mere presence was dreaded. Amalia vividly captures how political oppression instilled fear of persecution and even paranoia. In turn, this influenced the lives of ordinary Argentines. They had to monitor what they said and whom they associated with. They also had to be cautious about the political symbols they displayed and how they presented their homes.

In the midst of these dark and trying times, hope continued to beckon. As the Mazorca and Rosas continued to instill fear in the hearts of Argentines, there remained those who refused to be silenced by violence and fear. They came in the form of the unitarios and other anti-Rosista forces. These forces represented aspirations for an end to political oppression and the restoration of political freedom. Daniel worked tirelessly to unite these forces despite the constant threat of persecution. His political activities also placed Amalia and Eduardo in increasing danger. However, ideological and political differences persisted even among those who opposed the regime. These differences created divisions that hampered the opposition from making any meaningful headway. Even Lavalle’s campaign was scrutinized by those who were supposed to support him. Interestingly, Mármol presented tyranny and freedom as polar opposites, with freedom embodied by civilization and reason, and tyranny associated with fear, irrationality, and barbarism.

They knew that emancipation from the monarchical principle was not what the social needs of the peoples of America required. To fulfill their great destiny in the world whose peoples needed to break the secular arms that tied them to a foreign and backward monarchy. But those needs did not call for a divorce between the monarchical principle and those peoples in order to attain this end.

José Mármol, Amalia

Despite the darkness that looms, romance also blossoms. Love, as history has proven, can become a potent symbol in the midst of violence and fear. The budding romance between Amalia and Daniel provides the novel with its emotional backbone. Amalia’s home then transforms into a temporary sanctuary, serving not merely as a place for physical healing but also as a refuge for emotional healing. For Eduardo, it is a safe haven; for his fellow revolutionaries, including Daniel, it is an island of peace that separates them from the violence and political paranoia permeating the world beyond the house. Still, Amalia and Daniel’s private happiness remains under constant threat because of the political situation. Unfortunately, their private lives are intertwined with the political circumstances surrounding them. Nevertheless, their love becomes yet another beacon of hope despite the pall hanging over them. Their relationship is a potent allegory for the possibility of happiness and even intimacy amid political turmoil. It holds the promise of a peaceful future.

A recurring theme in Amalia is exile. After all, the novel was written while Mármol was in exile in Montevideo. Daniel himself visited those who had sought refuge there. Like Mármol, they were among the literal political exiles who were forced to flee their homeland to escape Rosas’s persecution. There is also a psychological and even emotional dimension to Mármol’s idea of exile. Amalia, for instance, was separated from her homeland. Meanwhile, other characters were separated from their families and political aspirations. They were also separated from the lives they once knew. Exile, then, functions both as a source of fear and as a source of hope. It was truly a turbulent period in the recently independent nation, as its people were divided between unitarios and federalistas. The contours of Argentine high society, in which Amalia moved, were also evocatively captured by Mármol. The federalistas and their ilk basked in balls and social gatherings. These gatherings subtly reverberated with the undercurrents of Argentina’s political and social tensions, even as the members of the elite tended to remain oblivious to them.

Ultimately, Amalia is a vivid examination and depiction of Argentina’s political landscape shortly after the country gained independence from Spain. The novel would become a precursor to what would later be known as the dictator novel. It is also widely regarded as the first Argentine novel. The convergence of romance and politics provides the novel with its depth and distinct texture. It subtly underscores how ordinary lives are inseparable from politics. The love between Amalia and Daniel offers a fragile counterpoint to the brutality of Rosas’s regime, while the experiences of Eduardo and the other opponents of the government reveal the devastating consequences of living under political repression. Mármol transforms these personal tragedies into a broader meditation on tyranny, political persecution, exile, and the enduring desire for freedom. It is the convergence of these various elements that allows Amalia to transcend time and physical boundaries.

Angel of my soul: it is your imagination and nothing more. Weighed down by misfortunes, your spirit has become filled with shadows that will soon melt away in the light of my love, in the adoration to which my life will be devoted, keeping watch over your happiness and calm. It is the air, the light of Buenos Aires, that is sickening your spirit and your body. But soon you will be at my side, far away from here.

José Mármol, Amalia
Book Specs

Author: José Mármol
Translator (from Spanish): Helen Lane
Publisher: Oxford University Press
Publishing Date: 2001 (1851)
No. of Pages: 643
Genre: Historical, Romance

Synopsis

Written by José Mármol while in exile, Amalia was conceived to protest the cut-throat dictatorship of Juan Migheul de Rosas during the tumultuous years of post-independence Argentina and to provide a picture of the political events during his regime. A year after its publication in 1851, Rosa fell from power, and Amalia became Argentina’s national novel. Though its classic and obligatory status as required reading in Argentina’s schools has clouded its sparkle, it is above all a brilliant and passionate book whose popularity stemmed from the love story that fuels its plot.

Mármol recounts the story of Eduardo and Amalia, who fall in love while Eduardo convalesces from a death-squad attack in Amalia’s home. At once a detailed picture of life under a dictatorship and a tragic love story between a provincial girl and a young man from Buenos Aires, Amalia displays Mármol’s patience with historical detail and his flair for dialogue and description and remains an enduring work of literature in Latin America and the world.

About the Author

José Mármol was born on December 2, 1817, in Buenos Aires, Argentina. As a student, Mármol was erratic, but he became determined to become a lawyer and enrolled in the Faculty of Law at the University of Buenos Aires in 1836. However, due to the period’s oppressive political climate, he soon abandoned his studies in favor of politics; the university was one of the hotbeds of conspiracy against the dictatorship of Juan Manuel de Rosas. In 1839, he was arrested and jailed for six days. He was found to have newspapers published in Montevideo, Uruguay, by the principal Argentine intellectuals in exile, the proscriptos. The constantly increasing threat of political persecution prompted him, a year and a half later, to flee the country and put himself in self-imposed exile. While his passport would have allowed him to safely cross the border, he traveled clandestinely, finding passage to Montevideo on a French schooner. This marked the start of a peripatetic life.

During his time in Montevideo, Mármol founded three journals, most notable among them being La Semana. He also contributed to other literary journals. He also earned a reputation as a passionate critic of Rosas and his supporters, and the sobriquet el verdugo poético de Rosas (“the poetic hangman of Rosas”). His best-known poem is A Rosas, el 25 de Mayo de 1843 (To Rosas, 25 May 1843), a vivid, fierce invective against the dictator. His lyric poems were collected into Armonías (Montevideo, 1851). His most renowned work, however, is Amalia (1851–55; Amalia: A Romance of the Argentine, 1919). Amalia is widely considered by many critics to be the first Argentine novel. Mármol also played an influential role in the development of the realistic novel in Latin America.

In 1852, after the overthrow of Rosas, Mármol returned home to Argentina as a national hero. Interestingly, this also marked the conclusion of his literary career. After his exile, Mármol was elected a senator and later a national deputy from the province of Buenos Aires. He later served as plenipotentiary to Brazil. In 1858, he was appointed the director of the Biblioteca Nacional de la República Argentina, until blindness forced him to retire. He died in Buenos Aires on August 9, 1871.